Literacy and Literary Culture in Ancient Israel

Were ancient Israelites literate?

Notwithstanding the varied uses of written texts, it is not clear how widespread literacy was; Israelite culture was primarily oral. Although an alphabet of twenty-two characters made it relatively easy to learn to read and write, private individuals had little need for those skills. However, many more Hebrew inscriptions have been found dating from the eighth to sixth centuries BCE than from earlier, and biblical descriptions of this period show a greatly increased role for writing in society, mentioning written deeds to property (Jeremiah 32), divorce documents (Deuteronomy 24:1), and the recording of prophecies (Jeremiah 32 and 36). Although most writing was done by professional scribes and officials, the proliferation of seals and containers with their owners’ names inscribed on them (see Seals and Seal Impressions) and inscribed weights with their denominations spelled out (see Ancient Israelite Coins and Scales) suggests that some ordinary people could read at least simple words and names. But the percentage of those with higher-level reading and writing skills was probably never large. Even kings had documents read aloud to them, although that does not necessarily mean that they could not read.

Who wrote ancient Israelite literature?

Whether it was intended to be read by a broad audience or to them, written literature was created throughout the biblical period, but much of it has been lost. Some compositions have survived in excerpts quoted or alluded to in the Bible, such as the Book of the Wars of the Lord (Numbers 21:14), the Book of Jashar (2 Samuel 1:18), the Book of the Annals of Solomon (1 Kings 11:41), and the Annals of the Kings of Israel and of Judah (1 Kings 14:19 and 29). Written literature included written counterparts of many oral genres (legends, sayings, or songs) as well as royal records and annals, collections of laws, prophecies, psalms, and wisdom sayings, historiographical and biographical narratives, and the longer and shorter books that became parts of the Bible.

The writings that later became parts of the Bible were preserved, and revised, by Judahites who returned from the Babylonian exile, but some of these writings, notably (but not only) the stories about the northern prophets Elijah and Elisha, reflect the Hebrew dialect of northern Israel, indicating that they originated there. They had probably been brought to Judah before 722 BCE by northern Israelites fleeing the Assyrian destruction. The fleeing Israelites account for a population influx shown by the growth of Jerusalem and other sites in Judah in the time of Hezekiah. Other parts of the Bible were composed after the return from exile and many of them reflect the Judean exilic experience.

Little is known about the institutional background of the written literature. The book of Proverbs (25:1) mentions that members of the court of King Hezekiah preserved a collection of King Solomon’s proverbs, and it is likely that there were archives and libraries in Israelite palaces and temples, as there were elsewhere in the ancient Near East. Royal courts probably employed professional scribes or sages (scholars and experts). The classical prophets and their followers created and preserved collections of prophetic speeches. Priests wrote ritual laws. Some psalms were probably composed by Temple singers for use in worship. The intended audience for most writings is a matter of conjecture, but several references to the reading of laws and prophecies at public assemblies suggests that this was a common way to broadcast some kinds of written literature (Exodus 24:7; Deuteronomy 31:10–13; Joshua 8:34–35; 2 Kings 23:2; Jeremiah 36; Nehemiah 8:1–8).

The variegated background of biblical literature is reflected in the variety of viewpoints or emphases it expresses. For example, classical prophetic literature insists that religious acts are meaningless in the absence of social morality, while in the Torah there is no contrast between moral and religious laws. Wisdom literature, in contrast to both the Torah and the Prophets, presents its teachings as primarily those of parents and sages, not as commands revealed by God, even as it insists that the “fear of the Lord” is the first principle of wisdom. Wisdom writings differ over the efficacy of righteousness. The book of Proverbs teaches that right conduct leads to success and prosperity, while the book of Job challenges this view and argues that evildoers may indeed prosper and the righteous suffer. The elevated attitude toward kingship in the book of Psalms, such as Psalm 2:7 where God calls the king His son, is very different from the reserved view of kingship in the book of Deuteronomy, which limits the king’s powers and assigns him no role in governance.

Biblical literature, like other aspects of ancient Israel’s culture, owes much to the neighboring cultures of the ancient Near East. In some cases, there was a common cultural heritage, while in other cases the Bible borrowed from its neighbors, directly or indirectly. Biblical poetry is similar in style, vocabulary, and idioms to Canaanite poetry. Literary motifs and even specific passages of many works, such as the Babylonian flood story, the Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope (a collection of instructions similar to those in the book of Proverbs), and Babylonian laws, are paralleled in the Bible. Borrowed material was adapted to Israelite beliefs and values. The biblical version of the flood story, for example, reflects the Bible’s view that there is only one real God, who is the creator of all, is outside of nature, and is not subject to its limitations, whereas polytheism is inherent to the plot of the Babylonian version. Likewise, biblical laws reflect Israel’s legal principles, not Babylonia’s.