The Geography of the Hebrew Bible: Where Did Ancient Israelites Live?

The life and history of ancient Israel as an independent nation played themselves out on the soil of the land of Israel. The Bible describes it as “a land of hills and valleys . . . a land with streams and springs and fountains issuing from plain and hill; a land of wheat and barley, of vines, figs, and pomegranates, a land of olive trees and honey” (Deuteronomy 11:11; 8:7–8). The biblical land of Israel extends some 140 miles (220 km) from Dan in the north to Beersheba in the south and some fifty miles (80 km) from the Mediterranean coast to the plateau beyond the Jordan River. It comprises an area of approximately 7,200 square miles (20,000 km²) and is extraordinarily diverse in its topography, landscape, and climate. Parallel topographical zones run north–south: (from west to east) the coastal plain, the Shephelah (foothills), the central hill country, and the Rift Valley. Through these zones run the Sea of Galilee, the Jordan River, and the Dead Sea, which, at 1,412 feet (430 m) below sea level, is the lowest exposed point on earth. The zones are transected intermittently by valleys. Rainfall, limited to the growing season (October to April), varies by region. The area from Jerusalem to the northern coastal plain receives 24 to 32 inches (600–800 mm) annually, while more southern and eastern regions receive barely the minimum amount needed to sustain agriculture, which is 8 inches (200 mm). Differences in terrain, soil type, and rainfall all affected the lives of the inhabitants.

The central hills were the heartland of Israelite territory. Originally consisting of small, rural farmsteads, probably settled by kinship groups, the central hill country eventually encompassed important cities such as Shechem, Bethel, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Hebron, and Beersheba, which stood on its ridge. The rocky soil of the hills could be made to produce, but only with much effort. In order to increase the amount of flat land for planting, the Israelites built terraces on the hills. The primary crops were wheat and barley, grapes, and olives. Livestock, primarily sheep and goats, were herded in those fields that lay fallow. The river valleys and the coastal plain proved to contain some of the most fertile land, especially the very broad Jezreel Valley, which cuts across the northern part of the hill country, separating the Samaria hills from Galilee. The Beersheba Valley marks the southern end of the hill country and of land that can sustain rain-fed farming. The steep eastern slope of the hill country, including the Judean wilderness, drops several hundred meters to the Jordan Valley and was impossible to cultivate.

Israel’s neighbors included the Philistines and Phoenicians along the Mediterranean coast; the Moabites, Ammonites, and Edomites in Transjordan; and the Aramaeans in Syria (see the map Israel, Judah, and Neighboring Lands). Relations with them were sometimes peaceful, sometimes inimical. Situated along the land bridge between the Egyptian and Mesopotamian ends of the Fertile Crescent, the territories of Israel and its neighbors were often invaded and sometimes conquered by armies from one direction or another, particularly from Egypt, Assyria, and Babylonia. In all periods, however, traffic between Israel and the surrounding lands, both near and far, included the transfer of goods and ideas, and many examples of Egyptian, Phoenician, North Syrian, and Mesopotamian artifacts, as well as a smaller number of Egyptian and Mesopotamian texts, have been found at archaeological sites in Israel and nearby.