A. Leyeles, and N. Minkov, Introspectivism

Considered by many the most brilliant and innovative voice in Yiddish modernist poetry, Jacob Glatstein (Yankev Glatshteyn) was born and raised in Lublin, in the Polish reaches of the Russian Empire. In 1914, he moved to New York City, pursued a higher education in the American university system, and developed as an American Yiddish poet in sustained dialogue with Anglo-American modernism. He was among the founders of the In-zikh (Introspectivist) movement in Yiddish poetry, which reimagined Yiddish poetry as a site where modern Yiddish poets, liberated from any narrow expectations regarding either Jewishness or poetic tradition, would express their unique individual experience and working-through of modern life, addressing all dimensions of personal experience they deemed relevant (not only, say, “Jewish” ones) and using whatever formal means were called for. In the process, by drawing on all the unique resources of the Yiddish language itself (not excluding their own innovations) and simply by dint of speaking from their own individual experience and location, they would render Yiddish literature and culture far more modern, capacious, and appropriate to the intellectual and cultural needs of modern readers. Glatshteyn’s own iteration of this ideal in his early poetry was remarkably playful and inventive at every level of the poem, from always surprising and sometimes scandalous content to all sorts of experimentation in form—Glatshteyn was a pioneer of Yiddish free verse—and in language itself, as expressed in Glatshteyn’s skilled playing with sound and register. In the 1930s, Glatshteyn grew ever more concerned about the Jewish political situation in Europe. A growing sense of looming catastrophe, consolidated by a trip back to Poland in 1934 to visit his dying mother after twenty years away, increasingly colored his poetry and shaped his most important prose works, his two-volume autobiographical masterpiece Ven Yash iz geforn (When Yash Went Forth) and Ven Yash iz gekumen (When Yash Arrived) and his book for young people Emil un Karl (Emil and Karl). The destruction of East European Jewry had a deep impact upon Glatshteyn and profoundly changed his approach to Yiddish poetry. His long postwar poetic career was marked by a focus on the Holocaust, memory, the fate of Yiddish culture and collective Jewish fate; by a repudiation of the modernist confidence in the intrinsic good of human creativity and radical freedom that he had at least flirted with before the 1930s; and by a concomitant renunciation of the bravura formal experimentation that marked his debut, though he remained a master of poetic language. Glatshteyn also wrote many volumes’ worth of literary criticism and essays.

A. Leyeles was the pen name of the American Yiddish poet Arn Glanz, one of the greatest American Yiddish poetic modernists who wrote in an Anglo-American vein. Leyeles was born and raised in Russian Poland, where he received a modern Hebrew education but also grew interested in Russian and German poetry. In 1905, he went to London and, in 1909, to New York. He worked in Yiddish education and, from 1914, was on the staff of the Yiddish daily Der tog. In 1919, Leyeles cofounded the In-zikh (Introspectivist) movement, which demanded that Yiddish poetry be liberated from any determinate political, national, social, aesthetic, or formal demands and that Yiddish poets be free to write wholly individualistic poetry attentive to any aspects of their personal experience in the modern world, as well as freedom to experiment with form and style. Over five decades, Leyeles continuously experimented, simultaneously cultivating classical forms largely foreign to Yiddish poetry such as the sonnet, writing short free-verse works in an imagist vein, and long, reflective poems about the great political and aesthetic questions as they intertwined with personal, Jewish, and human questions of nature, desire, and death. He frequently battled with critics who demanded more politically engaged, socially relevant, and accessible verse, insisting instead that Yiddish poetry had to strive to be great art if it was to be worthwhile as both a collective Jewish and modern individual creation. Leyeles published the journal In Zikh from 1920 to 1940 with fellow Introspectivists Jacob Glatstein and Nahum Baruch Minkoff. Although his postwar poetry offers some of the most searing verse about the Holocaust in Yiddish letters, Leyeles also renewed and even deepened his attention to the theme of Jewish life and fate in America generally and New York City particularly.

The Yiddish literary critic and poet Nokhum Borukh Minkov was born and raised in Poland, where he spoke Russian and Polish at home and at school. He did not immerse himself in the Yiddish language until after he moved in his twenties to the United States and began moving in New York Yiddish literary circles. He was one of the founders of the Introspectivist movement in Yiddish poetry.