Jewish Family Names in Ukraine

The question of family names in general and of Jewish family names in particular is interesting in many ways. Unfortunately, Jewish scholarship has thus far devoted very little attention to this question. My works in this field are almost the first. In Western Europe, however, and especially in Germany, extensive monographs have been devoted to the topic of family names, their origins and character, as well as to their historical and philological significance. [ . . . ]

Family names in general are a product of the most modern times exclusively. Of course, the more civilized a country, the earlier its inhabitants began to use family names, even before it was required by law. We have to assume—and the facts emerging from research in this direction confirm our assumption—that it was not just the higher classes, the nobility, who held nicknames [tsunemen] they had once received in high esteem and made every effort to pass them on as their heritage, but the bourgeoisie and the wealthy peasantry, too. So, for instance, German intellectuals contend that in Germany family names were in common use already around the sixteenth century. [ . . . ]

In Russia, Jews who had settled there earlier used personal names only, and when the occasion required they added the russified version of their father’s name. The 1804 “Decree Regarding Jews” was the first to order Jews to take a permanent family name, but it granted Jews freedom to choose a name of their liking. The law of 1835 repeated this order, but, as a matter of fact, only in 1844 did the regulation regarding Jewish family names come into full legal force, and, due to the dissolution of the communities, oversight of this issue was placed in the hands of the local governments.

In Poland, Jews were first obligated to obtain permanent family names following the decision of March 27, 1821, with the threat of expulsion from the country. However, since many people were not alarmed by this severe measure, the magistrates were granted the authority to give family names to those who had neglected to obtain one.

One would think that since the institution of family names among Jews emerged relatively late, they would have been preserved in a clear form, and their literal meaning should be easy to understand and interpret—this is, after all, what makes family names interesting as a scholarly research topic. Unfortunately, this is not the case, and many Jewish family names are no longer decipherable today. [ . . . ]

Turning now to the explanation of the meaning of the 3,020 family names that I have collected. [ . . . ] I have to note first that the holders of these family names are all more or less permanent residents of Ukraine in that they were born there. The family names presented here are from my note-taking of many years, from reports of various philanthropic societies from Elizavetgrad and Odessa, as well as from the Duma’s lists of eligible voters in Elizavetgrad and the surrounding districts. All these materials are from before the [First World] war; thus immigrants do not appear in them at all. [ . . . ]

When family names were not yet obligatory for Jews, there was no doubt about their literal meaning because they were written in Yiddish letters; however, it is possible that already by then many names had lost their meaning due to their having been misspelled in the past or because they were taken from foreign languages, etc., as we see in the case of Jewish personal names. In any case, it is certain that the mishmash we see today emerged when the registration of Jewish family names was put into the hands of non-Jewish authorities. Although the law of 1844 specifies that “councils and city halls are responsible to make sure that the name and family name of every Jew is written completely correctly,” this was easier said than done. A language is not something that is set once and for all. [ . . . ]

Due to folk etymology, it is possible that many family names with the ending -in were changed to -ind, for example: Ziskin–Ziskind, Zalkin–Zalkind, and the other way round, Shulkind and the Old Yiddish Gutkind sound to the Russian ear as Shulkin and Gutkin; analogically, Elboym can turn into Albom.

The absence of the “h” sound in the Russian language, and the corresponding letter in the Russian alphabet, brought about lots of awkward results when rendering Jewish family names, often completely obscuring the meaning of the name. The German “h” is rendered in Russian as “г” and sometimes as “х.” Interestingly, in Yiddish family names the “ה” is often completely left out. In this case we have instead of Hartsman–Artsman, Helfman–Elfman, Hendel–Endel, Hokhman–Okhman. In those cases where the family name is rendered using the [Cyrillic] letter “г” (g), it is difficult to distinguish words starting with a “ה” from those that really start with a “ג.” For example, the Russian “гут” can be the rendition of either “gut” or “hut”; “гейбер” can be “geiber” or “heiber”; “гaрбер” can be “garber” or “harber.” In these instances, Russian renders words of different origins in one graphic form. The “H” sound is rendered as “х” (ch) in the family name Khonikblum–Honikblum. [ . . . ]

Here is a summary of this type of classification:

Family names that consist of Russian words with a certain meaning, such as Apteker [pharmacist], Baran [sheep], Vishnya [cherry], Zayats [rabbit], Kosoglyad [squint-eyed], Tkatch [weaver], etc. total (except for the Ukrainian ones) 145

Even if we deduct from this number those 224 family names that have a Hebrew or Yiddish root, such as Abovsky, Beylin, Veynerov, Gabayev, Zilberov, Figerovitsh, etc., we are still left with 1,414 Russian family names. In other words: Russian family names make up almost half of all family names of Jews in southern Russia [today’s Ukraine].

The second-largest group is Yiddish family names. I classified them in the following categories that might be of interest for further research. We have to note that Yiddish family names, just like German family names, with which they generally have some connection, most of the time do not have specific suffixes. Therefore, I selected from the large quantity of simple and compound words those whose last segment is relatively frequent. Of the rare German family name endings we can find among our family names “-s” and “-er.” The first one is the possessive ending (genitive)—which corresponds to the Russian “-in” or “-ov” (Beylin–Beylis). The second refers to the origins and corresponds to the Russian “-sky” (Voliner–Volinsky).

Jewish family names that are Yiddish words with a meaning, such as Aynbinder [bookbinder], Bak [cheek], Ber [bear], Blayvays [white lead], Zilbergeld [silver money], Ruf [call], and others 296

Total number of Yiddish family names 792, that is one-quarter of all registered names, and less than half the Russian names. If we add to this number those Yiddish family names that have a Russian suffix, among which we can also find names of Hebrew origin, it will still reach only one-third of all registered names. Thus, Yiddish family names take second place after Russian family names.

In addition to family names with pure Yiddish origins, there are also a good number of family names with Hebrew roots. Some of these can be considered Yiddish because the words have become part of the Yiddish language. Since they are interesting from a lexical and onomatological [how something is expressed] point of view, I will list them here in the order of the Hebrew alphabet.

Hebrew family names:

Avidan, Avidor, Ivry, Eydes, Inklos, Ufa, Yishaye, Aloyts, Ashkenazi, Asher/Osher, Apiryon, Bogod, Bagrash, Bazyan, Balegul, Bamze, Batsme, Barez, Bardekh, Barkan, Badarakh, Benham, Benikhem, Beryak. [ . . . ]

This still does not exhaust the linguistic makeup of our family names. It is very interesting to look at a group of Ukrainian family names, some of which have not been included in the general Russian list. Just by looking at the large number of family names with endings that are specific to Ukrainian, such as “-ak,” “-yak,” “-uk,” “-yuk,” and “-ko,” we can assume that there must also be Jewish family names with Ukrainian roots. But since Russian and Ukrainian are so closely related, it is not always possible to determine the origin of a certain word. Therefore, in the following text we only bring those family names that are almost undoubtedly Ukrainian.

Ukrainian family names:

Otsheretyaney [from Otsheret [ . . . ]? [ . . . ], Arkush [ . . . ]? [ . . . ], Borovik [a kind of mushroom], Barkhan [ . . . ]? [ . . . ], Borshtsh, Budnik [worker in a potash factory], Buhayev [from Buhay], Bidrat [ . . . ? . . . ], Bisnovatey [ . . . ? . . . terrible?], Beyer [a crumb?], Bevzen [a fool], Garman? [a barn], Gots (Hots?) [a jump], Gorelik [from . . . ? . . . , brandy], Gubenko [from . . . ? . . . lip], Nuzik, Gulish [from Kulish?, a kind of food], Gusak [gander], Guralnik [brandy distiller], Grabadnik [miner], Granatur [ . . . private? . . . ], Gretshanik [a pastry made of grits]. [ . . . ]

These are the main linguistic elements that entered the stream of Jewish family names in southern Russia. In addition to the main stream, some smaller rivers flowed into the pool, and those should be mentioned for the sake of comprehensiveness.

It is quite conspicuous that the number of purely Polish family names is negligible. These include Adamowsky, Bazilewsky, Wiltshur, Zholti, Stanislawsky, Kazimirow, Kwiat, and others. This, however, is only seemingly true, because we can assume that many family names ending in “-sky” are actually from Polish and not from Russian; after all, Jews had lived in Poland for a long time, and Russia acquired Jews only with its annexation of Poland. But, unfortunately, the difference in spelling is so minimal—if there is one at all—that it makes distinguishing categories according to these two languages very problematic. [ . . . ]

At the beginning of our work, we pointed out the significance of nicknames with regard to the creation of family names. Nicknames emerged right after personal names; they constituted the second phase of identifying a person. Therefore, it is no surprise that later, when the need arose to create family names, many nicknames were turned into permanent family names. In fact, there are a large number of family names that cannot be considered anything but former nicknames; many of them have been preserved in their original form, without any grammatical modification. [ . . . ]

Family names—nicknames (tsunemenishn):

Oystatsher, Imber, Altin, Antik, Ostry, Okun, Oks, Armut, Bober, Bodian, Bas, Basoy, Bak, Bokser, Boroda, Baran, Bulgatsh, Bik, Blat, Blayvays, Blinder, Benun, Beloausov, Bren. [ . . . ]

It is also interesting that other family names have their equivalents in every language used by Jews, for example: Krimer [Krumer]—Hink—Khiger [Hager]—Khromoy; Kleyner—Kuts (Ukrainian)—Maley; Yofe [Yafe]—Prigozhi—Sheyn. [ . . . ]

One would imagine that patronymic family names, created from the name of the father or some paternal ancestor, would be the most widespread. But, as we have seen, this is not the case. It turns out that nicknames got the upper hand, and even the patronymic family names emerged from personal surnames that, for one reason or another, gained permanent character. [ . . . ]

An ethnographically unique feature of Jewish family names is that they are often formed from women’s names. Usually, women take on their husbands’ family name. In southern Germany, in Switzerland, as well as in Spain, however, the wife’s maiden name will be added to the husband’s name. This phenomenon is not exactly the same as the corresponding feature of our Jewish family names, though, because for us the point is not the continuity of the family name, but the femininity of the family itself. [ . . . ] All duties such as providing food and raising the children fell on the woman, and so it is no wonder that people talked about the woman, this eshes khayil [woman of valor], and the children were also called after her. If her name was Grune or Sosye, the children—and sometimes the husband, the talmidkhokhem [religious scholar], too—were called Grunes or Sosyes or Soshkes. The list below shows that family names in this category usually end in the Russian suffix “-in” or the Yiddish suffix “-s.” Among the family names we will also find names with all the other patronymic endings, but only seldom; by contrast, there are many family names with a masculine name as root and the “-s” ending. Thus, among the patronymic ending there is only one name with the ending “-ov,” Perlov, if we assume that this is from the female name “Perl,” and one with the ending “-ovitsh,” Libovitsh. Names ending in “-sky” are Pansky, Khinsky, Esterovsky, and Persky; names ending in “-zon”/“-son” are Khaynson, Khinson, Perelson, Feygenzon; names ending in “-kind” are Itkind, Elkind, Rokhkind; names ending in “-man” are Gitelman, Libman, Perelman, Rozelman. There are also female names without any etymological endings—Yekhvid, Sobol, Sheyndl. Family names ending in “-man” are more understandable here because “man” can also mean “husband.” Thus, Gitelman means “Gitel’s husband.”¹ In order to characterize matronymic family names I will present an almost complete list here.²

Matronymic family names:

[ . . . ] Merims, Minkin, Mintsis, Mikhlin, Motkin, Nekhamkin, Perlin, Pesis, Raskin, Reyzin, Reynis, Rivkin, Rodkin, Ronis, Rokhlin, Sifrin, Slavkin, Sosis, Soskin, Toybin, Toybis, Temkin, Tublin, Feygin, Fradkin, Fridkin, Frumkin, Khaykin, Khaytshin, Khasin, Khesin, Khinis, Khinkin, Tseytlin, Tsipis, Tsipkin, Tshernis, Sheynis, Shifrin, Eydis, Eldin?, Estin, Esterkin, Yudis, Yudashkin, Yudashkis, Yakhnes.

In my humble opinion, the large number of matronymic family names used by Jews can be considered evidence of the respect Jewish women enjoyed in their environment. In any case, if nothing else, it is important that it was not shameful for Jewish men and children to be called after their wife or mother; among Russians this almost never happens; Russian people usually call the wife by the husband’s name. [ . . . ]

Due to the multilingual character of our family names each profession appears in polyglot names. For example: Glezer–Skliar; Sapozhnik–Shevts–Shuster–Sandler (Sandlar); Kravets–Portnoy–Shneyder–Khayet.

The following list of the pertinent family names [ . . . ] gives us an idea of the kind of occupations that were common among Jews around the time when family names were established. Hebrew and Ukrainian family names of this kind are also cited in the pertinent lists.

Professions as family names:

Anbinder/Aynbinder [bookbinder], Apteker/Apteyker [pharmacist], Arkhitektor [architect], Utshitel (Lerer) [teacher], Bankhalter, Bankir [banker], Banshtshikov (Beder) [bath-house attendant], Basist [bass player], Beygel-treyger/Beygl-treger [bagel deliveryman], Beyder (Beder) [bath-house attendant], Beytelman [purse-maker or miller?], Beker, Bekerman [baker], Blekhman, Blekhshmid, Bliakher [tinsmith], Bonder [cooper], Botvinik [?], Brantvaynbrener [brandy distiller], Bulotshnik (Zemlbeker) [roll baker], Bukhbinder [bookbinder], Bukhhalter [bookkeeper], Galantirnik [haberdasher], Gerber (Garber) [tanner], Gleyzer/Glezer [glazier], Goldshmid [goldsmith], Gontsharov (Teper) [potter], Degtyarov [?], Desiatnikov [supervisor of the ten], Doktor, Dukhovny [religious functionary], Handel [?], Heytsman [stoker], Hendelman [merchant], Vekselman, Veksler [money changer], Vinokur (Bronfntrayber) [liquor distiller], Vodovoz (Vaserfirer) [water deliverer], Vodonom [water carrier], Voskoboynik (Vaksmakher) [wax/candle maker], Zeygermakher (watchmaker), Zinger [singer], Tendler [dealer in second-hand goods], Teper, Teperman [potter], [ . . . ] Tkatsh (Veber) [weaver], Tolmatski (Dolmetsher) [Interpreter], Treyger/Treger [deliveryman], Magaziner [warehouse-keeper], Maler/Moler [painter], Mantelmakher [coatmaker]. [ . . . ] Sapozhnik (Shuster) [shoemaker], Slesar (Shloser) [locksmith], Solodovnik (Maltsmakher) [maltster], Solomianik (Shtroymakher) [straw maker], Stoliar/Stolier [carpenter], Piekar (Beker) [baker], Pereplyot-shik (Aynbinder) [bookbinder], Pivover (Birbroyer/Bierbreuer) [beer brewer], Pletner [collector of lottery tickets], Povar (Kukher) [cook], Portnoy (Shnayder) [tailor] [ . . . ] Kreymer/Kremer [shopkeeper], Kreytshmer [innkeeper?], Krupnik [?], Kravits/Kravets (Shnayder) [tailor], Kuznyetsov (Shmid) [smith], Kutsher [coachman], Kaler/Keyler [butcher], Kamen-shtshik (Shteynhaker) [stone cutter]. [ . . . ] Koyfman [merchant], Kirzhner [furrier], Kloyzner [student of religion], Rabotnikov [worker], Rukhvarger/Roykhverger [fur trader], Ribak (Fisher) [fisherman], Reznik (Shoykhet) [slaughterer] [ . . . ]

We have to keep in mind that the underworld used to consist not just of thieves in the narrow sense of the word; certain classes of manual laborers were considered part of it, too, and especially all itinerant elements such as poor people and musicians. Jewish musicians have retained a special language of their own to this day, a lingo that shows many similarities with the thieves’ languages. It is hard to determine now who brought the pertinent family names into Jewish circles. They could have been musicians or pickpockets or petty thieves.

Such thieves’ family names are possibly:

Baran [bribe], Blat [crime], [ . . . ] Benegun [bedbug], Gratsh [pickpocket], [ . . . ] Volover [a thief who likes to boast], [ . . . ] Talyansky [homeless], [ . . . ] Khamut [a robber who suffocates his victim so he can rob him], [ . . . ] Malina [thieves’ home], [ . . . ] Kryepki [a loser who had fallen victim to cheaters many times already], [ . . . ] Shpeyer [revolver], [ . . . ]

Geographical names as family names (from Russia): [ . . . ]

It is also interesting to note that the absolute majority of geographical names as family names are those with the Russian ending “-sky”; occasionally we find some with the Yiddish ending “-er” and even less frequently the name of a town without a suffix, such as Kalish, Yarmolinyets. Some names feature the Yiddish version of the geographical name, e.g., Amtshislavsky instead of Mstislavsky, Skverski instead of Skvirski.

The group of geographical family names consists not only of Russian ones. A number of Jewish family names refer, no doubt, to foreign origins. But in this case sometimes it is even harder to say whether we have the right to connect the family name to the corresponding geographical name, even if we manage to find them. What does the family name “Goldberg” represent, for instance? Is this a reminder of a great-grandfather who had emigrated from the Prussian town of that name, or is this just a well-sounding euphemistic byname of the kind that Jews adopted with special pleasure when they received family names? To this last category belong most family names ending in “-boym” (“-baum”), “-berg,” “-tal,” “-feld,” “-shteyn,” etc. that appear to be geographical names. Nevertheless, from this chaos of family names we can separate a group that indicates with a great degree of probability that their owners emigrated from Germany or Austria. [ . . . ]

Abbreviations as family names:

Ash–Altshuler or Ayzenshtat, Bak–Bney-kedoyshim, Bardakh–Ben Rabbi Dovid Kharif, Baron–Ben Rabbi Nakhman, Beril–Ben Rabbi Yehuda-Leyb (Halevi), Gots–Ger Tsedek, Zak–zera kodesh [holy seed], Zakheym–zera kodesh hem [they are of holy seed], Mazye–me-zera Israel Isserlin [from the seed of Israel Isserlin], Mazya–me-zera Aharon ha-Kohen Mats [from the seed of Aharon ha-Kohen Mats]. [ . . . ]

Finally, let me point out one more reason why studying family names in a national context is important. If we look at family names as a national characteristic, then preserving them, even if the owner of the name left the tribe for a different camp for whatever reason, carries, doubtless, not only historical interest but also a racial interest, in as much as others want to see in race an unchangeable spiritual and cultural factor. Thus, in today’s Germany we can recognize according to their family names the Germanized Huguenots who had been expelled from France. In the very same Germany, antisemites, in order to fight Jews on a racial basis, introduced exact lists of Jewish family names. These lists, however, are of interest to the Jews themselves, as they can now identify their former “co-religionists.” In tsarist Russia Jews who converted had the right—until the middle of the nineteenth century—to change their family names at the time of conversion and thus conceal their great sin. Mandatory baptism of forcibly conscripted Jewish child soldiers (kantonistn) was always followed by giving them a new family name, often a euphemistic one, such as Dobrovolsky, for instance. This right was later eliminated and changing your family name required a permit from the highest authorities. The revolution gave everyone complete freedom in this regard; people were free to change their names as they pleased, and many people took advantage of this and changed their ugly-sounding family names to something appropriate, often not for ideological reasons at all. Because of this, there is often no trace left of people’s racial origins, and this is actually not always convenient.