Confirmation of the Old Regulations and Decisions

Active in the Netherlands, Romeyn de Hooghe was a prolific engraver, caricaturist, painter, and sculptor who produced over 3500 prints. His graphic political satires are considered the first of their kind. 

Toward the end of the sixteenth century, as the Netherlands sought to free itself from Spanish rule, New Christians began to settle in Amsterdam to find religious freedom and economic opportunity. The first to arrive did not live openly as Jews, but a group that settled in Amsterdam in 1602 conducted religious services in a private home. Initially, the Reform Church opposed allowing Jews to live in the city, while the civic authorities favored it. The first congregation, Beth Jacob, was founded in 1603. Another was founded in 1607, and together the two established charitable foundations. A third congregation was founded in 1618 as a consequence of disagreements in Beth Jacob. Tensions between religious leaders and liberal individuals led to disagreements between the two groups, but in 1639 the three congregations united and established the Kahal Talmud Torah of Amsterdam. Amsterdam became a center of Jewish learning and intellectual life. Many Spanish and Portuguese Jews engaged in foreign trade, tobacco production, printing, and the diamond industry.